Upanishadic Ideas in the Taoist Texts

by Hari Prasad Shastri

The points of contact between classical Indian thought and Chinese thought are few. The Chinese, from the time of Yao and Shun, have been a practical and down-to-earth people, while the Brahmins of India have been more inclined to reflection, philosophical speculation, and worship of the spiritual law called Dharma. Yet some of the mystical writers of China, Lao-tsu, Lieh-tsu and Chwang-tsu, and the amplifiers of their doctrines in the Sung dynasty, speak the very language of the Upanishads and live and breathe in a region similar to that of Yajnavalkya, Shankara and others.

In China nothing definite is known about either Lao-tsu or Lieh-tsu, although we have a legendary outline of the life of Chuang-tsu. Ssuma Chien of the Han dynasty, the greatest Chinese historian of ancient China, gives us no information about these great philosophers whose works have exercised such an influence on Chinese life and thought, but some Taoist thinkers of the Tang dynasty, in which several rulers professed to be followers of Taoism, held that Lao-tsu was an Indian rishi, who came through the Himalayas riding a bull, and after spreading his doctrine in China, returned to his Himalayan retreat.

The adherents of the mystic school in China call the nameless principle the ‘Tao’. Many renderings have been given of this word, but none is comprehensive. It seems certain, however, that what Lao-tsu and his followers have called Tao is that principle, unconditioned, attributeless and ever passive, yet infinitely and eternally creative, which the Upanishads call Brahman. The conversation between Duke Han and the wheelwright, reported in the words of Chuang-tsu, shows how Tao is beyond all authority and proof. The same thing is said about Brahman or Atman, which is not to be obtained either by reasoning or by hearing. Here is a summary of the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman in the words of the Tao Teh Ching:

The way that can be walked upon is not the eternal way;
The name which can be uttered is not the eternal name.

The Upanishads are emphatic on the merit of knowledge and the ultimate futility of rituals. Shri Shankara, in many of his writings, regards attachment to ritual to be a barrier to the realization of Atman. This also applies to the Taoist texts. Chuang-tsu performed no rites on the death of his wife. Nowhere does Lao-tsu recommend any ritual. He is critical of Confucius’ love for rites and ceremonies. Chuang-tsu is, at times, rather rude to the sage of rectitude, taunting him on his ceremonial dress and appearance.